History of the Marma's

                                

The Marmas of CHT were migrated from ancient Burma (Myanmar). The original and ancestral land of the Marma tribe was in the ancient Pegu city of Myanmar. The people of Pegu were known as “Talaing or Tai Luang” meaning “Greater Tai”, a branch of the Great Tai race, which, according to some historians, lived in southern and central China as early as 2200 BC.Arakan had firmly established its authority over Chittagong by the middle of the 16th century and retained its control for over a hundred years.

The Burmese do not seem to have settled in Arakan until the 10th century. The Arakan king, Tsu-La-Taing- Tsandra (951-957 A.D.), invaded Chittagong and defeated the local chieftain (probably a successor of Kanti Deva) in 953 A.D. in memory of this victory,  he erected a monument with the words Tsit-ta-gung (there shall be no war) inscribed on it. It is said that this monument had been erected on the south of Kaunia Charra near Kumira. According some historians the modern name of Chittagong is derived from the inscription on this monument.

Anawrahta (1044-77 A.D), one of the greatest king of Pagan in Burma, visited the Indian land of Bengal in course of his expedition. Harvey thinks that he visited Chittagong and planted magical image of men there. According Burmese history, the Burmese king Alaungsitha (1112-62 A.D) who was a very powerful monarch visited "the Indian land of Bengal" -- probably Chittagong -- where he found the images set up by Anawrahta.

According to Rajmala the Tipperah king Mukut Manikya sent some presents to the Arakan king Mengdi in 1395. Presumably, Chittagong was at that time under the control of Arakan king. According to Harvey, Sithabin was on the throne of Arakan in 1395 and Myinhsxinggyi in 1397.

In 1406 the Arakan king Meng, Soamwan (Nara Meikhla, 1404-34) was dethrone by the army of Burmese king. He then fled to Gaur and sought the protection of the king there. The Arakan king resided at Gaur for 24 years. When army of Ibrahiim Sharqi, king of Jaunpur, invaded Gaur in 818 A.H., (1416 A.D), the refugee king, at the request of Nur Qutbul 'Alam, rendered Raja Ganesa assistance. At last in 1430 A.D. Jalaluddin Mohammad dispatched an army to restore the Arakanese king on the throne. Wli Khan the general, who was sent restore the Arakan king, betrayed his trust. He came to terms with usurper (Shua Mangji) and took possession of Chittagong for himself. Nara Meikhla escaped to Gaur. The Sultan sent a second army who restored the king on the throne after killing Wali Khan. The Arakan king became a tributary to the Sultan of Bengal and undertook to assume a Muslim name and strike coins with Kalima. An increase Bengali Muslim influence is undoubtedly noticeable in Arakanese life from that period. This practice probably was first introduced in fulfilment of the promise made by Meng Soamwan but was continued in later times as a token of sovereignty in Chittagong which was recognised as being geographically beyond the country of the Arakanese race. Though Meng Khari (1434-59), successor of Nara Meikhla, occupied Ramu and Chittagong and shook off the Muslim authority. When Meng Khari occupied Ramu in 1434-35 the Chakmas on the frontier had put up a strong resistance on behalf of Muslims. But as nore-inforcement arrived from Gaur, the Chakmas were compelled to cede some part of Ramu to the Arakan king. The village of Rajakul and Chakmarkul near Ramu commemorate that invasion. However, the Muslims were not long in shaking off the authority of the Arakan kings from Chittagong.

In the beginning of sixteenth century there was a triangular fight between Hussain Shah, Tippera King Dhanya Manikya (1463-1515) and the Arakan king Minyaza (1501-23) for the conquest of Chittagong.  The Tippera king's army under general Chaychag in which Tippera army captured the fort at Meherkul and advanced upto the capital at Rangamati, (Dr. S.K. Chatterjee 6 thinks Chaychag was a tribal chief).  Acording to Rajmal, Dhanya Manikya captured Chittagong in 1513 and extended his domain upto Ramu and Chatrasik in Arakan in 1515. He struck coins to signify his victory in Chittagong. The Tipperah king's general in this campaign was named Rasagaamardan (victory of Arakan).

According to Arakanese history, the Arakan king, Min Yaza in 1517-18 sent an invasion to conquer Chittagong in charge general Sendaija who travelled by land with 4000 soldiers. The Arakan prince, Iremong, commanded the navy. The Mughal governor of Chittagong, (Yasin?) fled to Sonargaon. Prince Iremong occupied Sandwip and Hatiya and established his headquarters at Lakhipur. The Arakan king visited the newly conquered territory of Chittagong and Dacca in 1517. In 1518 the Chakma king Chanui made submission to the Magh king and sent four ministers with two white elephants. Dharangri, the Magh governor of Chittagong, reported this to the Magh king who was at Dacca. Meantime General Sendaija who was on a visit to Chittagong, examine the gift of elephants and found that these were not really white elephants but ordinary elephants rubbed over with lime. He became annoyed and detained the ministers of the Chakma king.  When came to the notice of the Magh king he took his general to task saying that the Chakma king had followed the tradition of making presents of white elephants to the Magh king and should not be punished. The Magh king was pleased to bestow the title, "Kulangphru" to the Chakma king. When the Magh king was returning to Arakan in 1520 he married the daughter of the Chakma king at Chittagong.

According to Rajmala, the Tipperaa king Debmanikya occupied Chittagong in 1522 after defeating Maghs.  The Arakan king Minbin (153-53), who was a capable ruler, occupied Ramu and Chittagong in 1531 and struck coins in which Chittagong and his Muslim name Zabauk Shah were inscribed. It was during Minbin's time that the Maghi system of land measurement in drones was introduced in Chittagong district. The Maghi calander is still in vogue in Chittagong and was mentioned in documents till recently. It is 35 years behind the Bengali year.

Arakan entered the greatest period of her history with the accession of Minbin in 1531. The king of Arakan firmly established their authority in Chittagong during the great part of the sixteenth century. Only for a short period during the reign of Mahmud Shah and Sher Shah in Bengal, Chittagong was in Muslim hands. According to an inscription in a sliver plate found in a Buddhist Kyang (Temple) in Chittagong, the Kyang (Temple) was built in 1542 by Chandilah Raja who was probably Arakanese governor for the Chittagong.

According to Arakanese history, Nusrat Khan Son of Hamza Khan, the Pathan governor of Chittagong made submission to the Arakanese king Sawlha (1553-64) and sent him presents, Nusrat Khan had clashes with the Minseyta (1554-71), successor of Sawlha, and was killed by the Portuguese, who were supporting the Arakanese, in 1569-70. Caeser Frederico has also referred to this incident. Ralph Fitch who was in Chittagong in 1585 expressly stated that it was often under the Arakan king.

The Maghs entered Udaypur, looted it and camped there for 15 days in 1586 AD when Meng-Phalaung (1571-93) was the king of Arakan.  He held all Chiltagong, and parts of Noakhali and Tippera. His son, Minnala, was the governor of Cbittagong. When the Tipperah king, Amar Manikya, was defeated in 1586, Jalal Khan is said to have died out of fear. Jalal's son, Ibrahim Khan, was the Uzir of Chittagong only in name. The real power was exercised by the Magh governor who was usually the second son of the Magh king.

In 1599 the Arakan king, Meng Razagvi (1593-1612) attacked Pegu. During the Arakanese occupation of Chittagong there were forts at Hinguli, Kumira, Garjis and Koterpara (near Hathazari). The Arakan king, Meng Radzagyi, who called himself king of Bengala and Tippera, issued from Chittagong trilingual coins in 1601 in Arabic, Burmese and Devanagri characters with his Burmese and Muslim titles. For a short time during his reign the Arakan dominion extended from Dacca and the Sunderbans upto Moulmein. Under the Mugh kings Chittagong was divided into three principalities e. g. Dianga, Chakrasals and Ramu. Under Arakanese occupation the governor of Chittagong was either a son, brother or faithful kinsman of the Arakan king who was supported by an Arakanese garrison. Every year the king sent a hundred boats full of troops, powder and ball and then the garrison, and boats sent in the previous year returned home to Arakan. Imports, and exports were subject to taxation during, the Arakanese rule in Chittagong. Taxes were also levied on fisheries, salt, dry fish and fruitful trees. The king had a monopoly in minerals, teak wood etc- Fees were realised for granting permission to dig tanks and canals, erect bridges and temples, and make roads. The union of the Portuguese freebooters with the Arakanese ushered the greatest period in Arakanese history (1550-1666) during which Chittagong was mostly in Arakanese hands.

Towards the latter part of the sixteenth century, the Portuguese settlement at Chittagong was in a flourishing state.The king of Arakan who held it, was favourably disposed towards the Portuguese. According to Ain-i- Akbari (1590) "To the east and south of Bengal is an extensive kingdom called Arakhang. The port of Chittagong belongs to it."

Two days after the tide turned, as Carvalho came with relief from Sandwip. He and Mattos got up 50 vessels among which were 2 foists, 4 catures, 3 barques, and the rest being jaleas. With this fleet they set out early in the morning and made surprise attack on enemy's ships with such fury and violence that they were completely routed. They became masters of all the Arakanese ships numbering 149 with all ammunition muskets and other implements of war. Many Arakanese lost their lives in this engagement, notably Sinabadi, the uncle of the king of Arakan who was governor of Chittagong. Some escaped by jumping into the sea and swimming across to land.

In 1609 dispute arose between the heir apparent of Arakan and his brother Anaporan. The prince actually fought a battle against his brother, who, being defeated, fled to Gonsalves, ruler of Sandwip. Gonsalves promised to succour him and kept his daughter as a hostage. He and Anaporan combining their armies marched against the king of Arakan but as the latter came with an army of 80000 men and 700 fighting elephants, they returned to Sandwip. In the sea fight, however, Gonsalves's brother Antonio captured 100 sails of the enemy with only 5 vessels on his side. Anaporan brought over to Sandwip his wife, children and all his treasure. Gonsalves married Anaporan's daughter. Shortly after Anaporan died and as Gonsalves seized his treasure it was suspected he caused his death. The Portuguese took the son of Anaporan who was 8 years old and a minor daughter to Hughli. In 1614 Meng Soa Pya, son of Nandabayon, king- of Pegu, succeeded Anaporan as governor of Chittagong. In, 1630 for war service against the Mughal he was given the tittle of Bohmong.

Raja Maung Saw Pru (also spelt Mong Saw Pru) was a son of King Nanda Bayin (Nanda Bayin, was king of Toungoo Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from 1581 to 1599) and grandson of Bayinnaung (Bayinnaung Kyawhtin Nawrahta was king of the Toungoo Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from 1550 to 1581). He was the 1st Governor of the Bohmong Circle (modern-day Bandarban District) from 1599 to 1631 appointed by Arakan king Min Razagyi during the Toungoo dynasty.

Maung Saw Pru is the first ruler of Bohmong Htaung (Circle) who was the son of King Nanda Bayin of Pegu and grandson of Bayinnaung.

In 1599, Min Razagyi (Min Razagyi was king of Arakan from 1593 to 1612.), the King of Arakan led to the capitulation of Hanshawaddy Kingdom (The Hanthawaddy Kingdom was the Mon kingdom that ruled lower Burma (Myanmar) from 1287 to 1539 and from 1550 to 1552). Nanda Bayin, the King of Pegu was defeated and perished in the war. Daughter of Nanda Bayin, Princess Thien Daw Hnang and minor Prince Maung Saw Prue were taken into Mrauk U Kingdom, the capital of Arakan, as captive along with other booties. Some 3000 families from Pegu followed the scion of their ruler and settled in Arakan.

The Arakanese King Min Razagyi appointed a Prince of Pegu Maung Saw Pru as the governor of newly established Bohmong Htaung (Circle) by giving the title of "Bohmong" Raja in 1599. Son of the Min Razagyi, King Khamaung (Min Khamaung; was a king of Arakan from 1612 to 1622) of Mrauk U married the Princess Thien Daw Hnang and appointed his brother-in-law Prince Maung Saw Pru as Governor of Chittagong in 1614.

The Mong Circle, chiefdom's members are of Marma descent and are known as phalansa. Most inhabitants of the Mong Circle settled in the northwest during a migration wave from the Kingdom of Mrauk U (modern-day Arakan State in Myanmar) between the 16th and 18th centuries, while inhabitants of the other Marma chiefdom, the Bohmong Circle settled in the south and are known as ragraisa.

The Kingdom of Mrauk-U was an independent coastal kingdom of Arakan which existed for over 350 years. It was based in the city of Mrauk-U, near the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. The kingdom from 1429 to 1785 ruled over what is now Rakhine State, Myanmar and Chittagong Division, Bangladesh. From 1429 to 1531 it was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods. After gaining independence from Bengal, it prospered with help from the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong. In 1666, it lost control of Chittagong after a war with the Mughal Empire. Its reign continued until the 18th century, when it fell to the invasion of the Burmese Empire.

The Mong Circle dates to 1782 with the first chieftain, Mrachai. During British rule, the British authorities designated the Mong Circle in 1871, to encompass an ethnically mixed population in the Feni valley. In 1881, the Chittagong Hill Tracts were administratively divided into three circles, namely the Chakma Circle, the Bohmong Circle, and the Mong Circles, each presided over by a hereditary chief from the Chakma and Marma peoples. The circles were codified into law with the Chittagong Hill Tract Regulations, 1900, eased revenue collection and administrative burdens on British authorities by delegating tax collection, land administration management and social arbitration responsibilities to the chieftains. In 1901, the Mong Circle extended 653 square miles (1,690 km2). This administrative structure remained in place until 1964, when the introduction of local self-government abolished the special status of these circles and brought local administration under the control of the central government.

 Relationship of the Magh (Marma) people with the rulers of Bengal:

Mogh (Marma) during Sultan rules in Bengal: During the twenty-six years of the reign of Alauddin Hussain Shah, the Muslim kingdom in Bangladesh expanded enormously. By restoring internal peace and order, Sultan Alauddin Hussain Shah concentrated on expanding the territory. Hussein Shah's military achievements can be divided into five parts: - 1. Sikandar Lodi's Martyrdom Treaty and the capture of North Bihar, II. Kamata-Kamrup and Assam expedition, 3. Orissa expedition, 4. Conflict with Tripura and 5. Conquest of Chittagong.

There was a long-running war between Husain Shah and the king of Tripura. The history of the kings of Tripura mentions this conflict in "Rajmala". It is known from Rajmala that Tripura Raja Dhanya-Manikya dominated Chittagong for some time. There is also mention of the occupation of Chittagong by the Arakanese Raj for some time. However, there is ample evidence of the permanent rights of Hussain Shah in Chittagong in contemporary Bengali literature and other sources. So it is believed that the kings of Tripura and Arakan clashed with Hussain Shah over the occupation of Chittagong. Due to the location and commercial situation in Chittagong, these clashes are very normal. However, it can be said without any doubt that the occupation of the kings of Arakan over Chittagong were very short-lived and the rights of the Husain Shahi rulers over Chittagong were intact from 1517 to 1538 AD. Nasrat Shah, son of Husain Shah, and most probably later Paragal Khan Chhuti Khan was the ruler of Chittagong.

Magh during Afghan rule in Bengal: Sher Khan Sur was the founder of the Afghan rule in Bengal. After the victory in the battle of Tosar, Sher Khan took the title of Sher Shah and declared independence in Bihar. He hastily attacked Gaur and captured the capital of Bengal by killing the Mughal ruler Jahangir Quli and his followers. By dominating Bengal and Bihar, Sher Shah occupied many parts of northern India. Humayun marched with his army to capture him. A battle was fought with Humayun near Sher Shah's Kanauj. Humayun was defeated in the battle of Kanauj (May 17, 1540 AD). As a result of this battle, Sher Shah ascended the throne of Delhi and established the Sur Afghan Empire in northern India by dispersing Humayun. From this Bangladesh again became part of the Delhi Empire. Bangladesh belonged to Sher Shah's empire till Chittagong and Shrihat. Until the reign of Sher Shah's son and successor Islam Shah (1545-53 AD) Bangladesh was under Delhi. After the death of Islam Shah, the Afghan Empire was divided in the fierce civil war that broke out among the Afghans over the throne of Delhi. At this time Muhammad Khan Sur, the ruler of Bengal, declared independence and Muhammad Shah took the title of Sur. Meng Bang, the Mugh king of Arakan, captured Chittagong on the occasion of the Afghan Civil War. Muhammad Shah Sur defeated the Maghs and recaptured Chittagong and conquered Arakan. But his rule over Arakan did not last long.

Mogh (Marma) during Mughal rule in Bengal: During the reign of Emperor Akbar, nominal Bangladesh became part of the Mughal Empire. Mughal rule could not be established in this province. Mughal rule was confined to the cities and forts of north-west Bengal. The great zamindars (Land lords) of Bengal did not accept the Mughal rule. They adopted independence in their zamindari (land lord) after the end of Karrani rule. These zamindars (Land Lords) are known as Bar Bhuiyan. Most of the Bar Bhuiyans were Muslims.

Emperor Akbar appointed Shahbaz Khan, one of his most famous generals, as the subaddar (Head of Administration) of Bengal in 1583 AD to establish Mughal rule in Bangladesh by suppressing the Bar Bhuiyans. Shahbaz Khan organized a massive campaign against Isa Khan and Masum Kabuli, the leaders of the Bar Bhuiyans. Isa Khan and Masum Kabuli expelled the Mughals from their zamindari. Subadar Sadiq Khan (1585 AD) and Wazir Khan (1586 AD), the successors of Shahbaz Khan, could not benefit from fighting against the zamindars for a long time. In 1608 AD Islam Khan was appointed Subadar. Subaddar Islam Khan (1608-1613 AD) suppressed the Bar Bhuiyans and established Mughal rule in the province. After the death of Subaddar Islam Khan, his younger brother Qasim Khan was appointed Subadar of Bengal (1613 AD). In 1616, Meng Beng, king of Arakan, joined the Portuguese pirates and attacked Bhuluya. Qasim Khan marched against them with a large navy. In the meantime, there was a rift between Meng Bang and his Firingi allies. On this occasion the Mughal army attacked the Arakanese forces and drove them out of Bhuluya. Kashim Khan tried to conquer Chittagong. His expedition to Chittagong failed.

Emperor Jahangir appointed Ibrahim Khan Fateh Jung as subaddar of Bengal in 1617 AD in place of Qasim Khan. Ibrahim Khan was the brother of Empress Nurjahan Begum. Emperor Jahangir instructed him to take possession of this neighboring kingdom. In 1618 AD, Ibrahim Khan under Mirza Isfandiar and Mirza Nuruddin sent expeditions to the state of Tripura by land and water. The Mughal forces advanced towards Udaipur, the capital of Tripura, via Meherpur and Comilla. King Yasomanikya resists them, but he suffers many losses in battle. He took refuge in Udaipur. Mughal forces attacked Udaipur and captured it. Yasomanikya fled to Arakan. At this time King Meng Khamang of Arakan was seizing the Sandhip from the Firingis and plundering the land on the banks of the Meghna River. Ibrahim Khan marched with a strong fleet to punish the Maghs of Arakan and drove them out of the Meghna. A few months later he organized an expedition from Tripura to Arakan. Leaving the fleet on the Feni iver, he proceeded towards Chittagong by land. On the way to the dense jungle his soldiers suffered great hardships and an epidemic broke out among them. Due to this the Arakan expedition was stopped.

After the accession of Emperor Shahjahan to the throne, Fidai Khan was replaced by Kashim Khan Juniy as Subaddar of Bengal (04 February 1628). After Kashim Khan Jr., Azam Khan was the subaddar of Bengal for three years. After this Islam Khan Mashadi (1635-39 AD) was appointed Subadar.

King Thudhamma of Arakan died during the reign of Subaddar Islam Khan Mashadi (1638 AD). King Thudhamma's son and his successor were killed and an official took over the throne. Thudhamma's brother and the ruler of Chittagong, Mangatara, fought against the usurper of the throne. Defeated in Mangatara, he fled and took refuge with the people in Jahangirnagar. The Mograja entered the Meghna River with a large navy and plundered the coastal areas. The Subadar advanced with a strong fleet to intercept the Maghs. Frightened, the king returned to his kingdom.

For the several times the rulers of Bengal tried to occupy Chittagong by attacking the Mugh kings, the rulers of greater Chittagong, in order to extend their territory. Because then Chittagong was under Arakan state and was ruled by Mugh king.

Magh/Marma during Arakan rule in Chittagong (1550--1666 A.D): Arakan entered the greatest period of her history with the accession of Minbin in 1531. The king of Arakan firmly established their authority in Chittagong during the great part of the sixteenth century. Only for a short period during the reign of Mahmud Shah and Sher Shah in Bengal, Chittagong was in Muslim hands. According to an inscription in a sliver plate found in a Buddhist Kyang (Temple) in Chittagong, the Kyang (Temple) was built in 1542 by Chandilah Raja who was probably Arakanese governor for the Chittagong.

Minseyta (1554-71): According to Arakanese history, Nusrat Khan Son of Hamza Khan, the Pathan governor of Chittagong made submission to the Arakanese king Sawlha (1553-64) and sent him presents, Nusrat Khan had clashes with the Minseyta (1554-71), successor of Sawlha, and was killed by the Portuguese, who were supporting the Arakanese, in 1569-70. Caeser Frederico has also referred to this incident. Ralph Fitch who was in Chittagong in 1585 expressly stated that it was often under the Arakan king.

Meng-Phalaung (1571-93): The Maghs entered Udaypur, looted it and camped there for 15 days in 1586 AD when Meng-Phalaung (1571-93) was the king of Arakan.  He held all Chiltagong, and parts of Noakhali and Tippera. His son, Minnala, was the governor of Cbittagong. When the Tipperah king, Amar Manikya, was defeated in 1586, Jalal Khan is said to have died out of fear. Jalal's son, Ibrahim Khan, was the Uzir of Chittagong only in name. The real power was exercised by the Magh governor who was usually the second son of the Magh king.

Meng Razagvi (1593-1612): In 1599 the Arakan king, Meng Razagvi (1593-1612) attacked Pegu. During the Arakanese occupation of Chittagong there were forts at Hinguli, Kumira, Garjis and Koterpara (near Hathazari). The Arakan king, Meng Radzagyi, who called himself king of Bengala and Tippera, issued from Chittagong trilingual coins in 1601 in Arabic, Burmese and Devanagri characters with his Burmese and Muslim titles. For a short time during his reign the Arakan dominion extended from Dacca and the Sunderbans upto Moulmein. Under the Mugh kings Chittagong was divided into three principalities e. g. Dianga, Chakrasals and Ramu. Under Arakanese occupation the governor of Chittagong was either a son, brother or faithful kinsman of the Arakan king who was supported by an Arakanese garrison. Every year the king sent a hundred boats full of troops, powder and ball and then the garrison, and boats sent in the previous year returned home to Arakan. Imports, and exports were subject to taxation during, the Arakanese rule in Chittagong. Taxes were also levied on fisheries, salt, dry fish and fruitful trees. The king had a monopoly in minerals, teak wood etc- Fees were realised for granting permission to dig tanks and canals, erect bridges and temples, and make roads. The union of the Portuguese freebooters with the Arakanese ushered the greatest period in Arakanese history (1550-1666) during which Chittagong was mostly in Arakanese hands.

Towards the latter part of the sixteenth century, the Portuguese settlement at Chittagong was in a flourishing state.The king of Arakan who held it, was favourably disposed towards the Portuguese. According to Ain-i- Akbari (1590) "To the east and south of Bengal is an extensive kingdom called Arakhang. The port of Chittagong belongs to it."

Two days after the tide turned, as Carvalho came with relief from Sandwip. He and Mattos got up 50 vessels among which were 2 foists, 4 catures, 3 barques, and the rest being jaleas. With this fleet they set out early in the morning and made surprise attack on enemy's ships with such fury and violence that they were completely routed. They became masters of all the Arakanese ships numbering 149 with all ammunition muskets and other implements of war. Many Arakanese lost their lives in this engagement, notably Sinabadi, the uncle of the king of Arakan who was governor of Chittagong. Some escaped by jumping into the sea and swimming across to land.

Meng Soa Pya (1614): In 1609 dispute arose between the heir apparent of Arakan and his brother Anaporan. The prince actually fought a battle against his brother, who, being defeated, fled to Gonsalves, ruler of Sandwip. Gonsalves promised to succour him and kept his daughter as a hostage. He and Anaporan combining their armies marched against the king of Arakan but as the latter came with an army of 80000 men and 700 fighting elephants, they returned to Sandwip. In the sea fight, however, Gonsalves's brother Antonio captured 100 sails of the enemy with only 5 vessels on his side. Anaporan brought over to Sandwip his wife, children and all his treasure. Gonsalves married Anaporan's daughter. Shortly after Anaporan died and as Gonsalves seized his treasure it was suspected he caused his death. The Portuguese took the son of Anaporan who was 8 years old and a minor daughter to Hughli. In 1614 Meng Soa Pya, son of Nandabayon, king- of Pegu, succeeded Anaporan as governor of Chittagong. In, 1630 for war service against the Mughal he was given the tittle of Bohmong.

The Mughals since the death, of Daud Khan in 1575 were in possession of Bengal and had over thrown the Bhuiyans by 1612. They were now planning the conquest of Bhulua. As this place was close to Sandwip, Gonsalves and the king of Arakan, thinking that the Mughals would be a danger to their kingdoms, forgot their enmity and entered, into a mutual agreement to combat them. They planned in 1614 to invade. Bengal the Portuguese in a fleet by sea, and the king of Arakan, Meng Khamaung, with an army by land. The king of Arakan entrusted the whole of his fleet to Gonsalves keeping his nephew as hostage. During these negotiations Gonsalves gave back the widow of Anaporan who afterwards married the governor of Chittagong. The king of Arakan and the Portuguese attacked in. 1614-15 the Mughals and drove them out of the principality of Bhulua and took Lakhipur, while Gonsalves barred their advance from the sea.

In 1616 Quasim Khan, Subhadar of Bengal, launched an offensive against the Raja of Arakan with Chittagong as first objective. He himself advanced to Bhulua (February, 1616), whence he despatched Abdun Nabi with a force of 5000 cavalry, 5000 musketeers, 200 war elephants and a fleet of 1000 war boats towards Chittagong. The Arakan king, Meng Khamaung (Hussein Shah ) decided to check their advance by making a fort at Katghar, a strategic point about 20 miles north west of Chittagong( a village 2 miles south of Barabakunda ). He sent his chief officer Karamgiri with a force of 100,000 infantry besides 400 elephants and 1000 war boats to complete the fort and bold it. He personally started from his capital for the defence of his stronghold of Chittagong with an army of 300,000 infantry and 10,000 calalry, besides a large number of elephants and war boats. Informed by spies that the new fort was not yet complete and that the garrison in the fort of Chittagong was also very small as the Arakan king had not yet reached with his force, Abd-un-Nabi hastened to Katghar leaving behind Sarbad Khan and Shaik Kamal to make a fort and hold it for the purpose of keeping up communication and food supply to the invading army, and delivered a vigorous assault on the unfinished fort in the early hours of the morning. The Arakanese were taken by surprise and though they greeted the Mughals with a .heavy shower of shells, bullets, arrows, bombs and stones the latter quickly overcame the resistance and pressed the garrison,so hard that the fall of the fort seemed imminent. At this stage, the Mughal commander, owing to his want of experience and judgment, was easily induced by some of his officers to suspend hostilities for the day, and this single mistake turned the tide of the whole campaign.

When the attack was resumed next morning, the situation had entirely changed. The garrison bad recovered from the shock of the sudden assault and offered such a determined resistance that the idea of storming the fort bad to be abandoned, and a siege decided on. But the siege operations dragged on and the besiegers themselves were soon reduced to the position of the besieged as a result of the activity of the commandant of the enemy fort. At the threat to the food supply of the main army, the Mughal commander raised the siege and retreated towards Dacca, leaving behind his heavy artillery and destroying about 500 mds. of gun powder (May, 1616). The Imperial army had halted at Nizampur which had been in possession of the Arakanese. The local zaminder (Land lord) surrendered to the Mughal commander. But after the departure of the Mughal army, the pargana with a revenue of Rs. 600/- was re-occupied by the Mughs.

In March, 1621 Ibrstnm Khan launched his long deferred Arakan campaign with Cbittagong as his objective from his new base at Tipperah. The route was more direct no doubt but it lay through a hilly region clad with dense forests, with a bad climate, and involving considerable difficulties in regard to transport and food supply,   Ibrahim Khan was ill-advised to adopt this new route and the expedition failed, primarily because of his initial mistake in regard to the choice of the route. Leaving the fleet in the big Feni river, the viceroy proceeded with the land army slowly along the new route to Chittagong, clearing the forest as be passed by. In some places the forest was so thick that even the horses and the elephants could not move without great difficulty. The scarcity of food and pestilence in his camp forced Ibrahim Khan to withdraw with the ranks much depleted and the morale of the army much shaken. In 1625 the twelve chiefs who ruled Chittagong on behalf of the Magh governor rebelled at the instigation of the Mugbal viceroy. Thiri Thudamma marched with his army, the navy following him, and crushed the rebellion. He raided Bhulua during this campaign.10 He then proceeded unopposed to Khizirpur along the Dulai to the out-skirts of Dacca, defeated the Mughal officers who had at last come out to face them, entered the city and sacked it and retired with a large booty and a number of captives. At this time Mahabat Khan was the governor of Bengal but the administration of Bengal was in charge of Khanzad Khan, son of Mahabat Khan, a lazy, pleasure-see king youth. This was the last raid by Mughs during the reign of Jahangir. Though Mirza Bagis, the Bhulna tbanadar had been11 supplied with 700 cavalry and 300 war boats he could not check the Arakan force. During the Arakan occupation Chittagong there was close contact between the peoples of Chittagong and Arakan. A large number of Muslim noblemen who had left Gaur after its fall had gone to Arakan and settled in the capital. They were the chief courtiers of the Arakan king whose court followed Muslim manners and customs. The Muslim courtiers of the Arakan king were great patrons of Bengali literature. Poets like Daulat Qadi and Alawal flourished at Arakan during this period and received patronage from Syed Musa, Magan Thakur and others. Magan Thakur, who practically exercised the powers of a chief minister, was himself a poet.

Thiri Thudamma (1622-38): Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) had rebelled against his father and occupied Dacca after killing Ibrahim Khan, the subahdar in 1624. At this time Thiri Thudamma (1622-38) sent his envoy to Dacca with rare gifts worth rupees one lac as peshkash. The Arakan raja through his envoy swore loyalty to the prince. The prince sent a valuable dress of honour with many precious gifts to the Arakan king and issued a Farman confirming the sovereignty of his territory which then included Chittagong.

An event occurred in 1638 which gave an additional impetus to the game of piracy in its most frightful form. Mangat Ray or Mukut Ray, governor of Chittagong, rebelled against the king of Arakan. After an unsuccessful attempt to raid Arakan he fled to Bengal for safety along with his leading partisans. He marched towards Bhulua and wrote to the Imperial thanadar of the frontier post of Jugdia for protection from the pursuing Magh fleet. By Islam Khan's command the thanadar of Jugdia drove away by gun fire 200 Magh jalias which were obstructing Mangat Rai and ferried him over the Feni River into Mughal territory. Taking advantage of the confusion of civil war in Chittagong over 10,000 people of Bengal who were held in slavery there by the Feringhis escaped to their home land. The Feringhi settlers and pirates of Chittagong who had backed Mangat Rai in his abortive rising, now abandoned that city in fear of the Magh king's vengeance. Most of them migrated to the Portuguese possessions and a few came over to the Mughals with their families and boats. In course of time most of the latter embraced Islam and became merged in the local population.

Shaista Khan conquered Chittagong: Mangat Rgi's family and supporters with 14 elephants and nearly 9000 men (both Arakanese and Tailang) reached Dacca and were welcomed and provided for by the Subahdar. To revenge on the Bengal kingdom, the king of Arakan made friends with the Portuguese adventurers, took them into his service, paid those high salaries and settled them in Dianga. With their help he built vessels large enough, to carry cannons. Thus equipped he began ravaging and laying waste the Mughal territory and launched a naval attack which was repulsed by Islam Khan.12 These cruel practices of the Arakanese and the Portuguese to which the people of Bengal were subjected continued till 1666 when Shaista Khan conquered Chittagong and broke their power for ever.

When the luckless prince Shah Shuja was defeated by Mir Jumla, he proceeded from Chittagong by road to Arakan for shelter. On his way to Arakan he is said to have visited Govinda Manikya, the exiled king of Tripura in Chittagong Hill Tracts. Govinda Manikya gave him a warm reception and helped him as far as he could in the circumstances, Shnja was so pleased with the reception that he presented Govinda Msnikya with a diamond ring and a Neemcha sword as token of gratitude. There is a mosque called after Shaja in Comilla. According to tradition Shuja conquered Coniilla and built this mosque as memento of his conquest. It is said that the village Shuja-nagar in Tipperah contained the property given in waqf for the maintenance of this mosque. The place in Cox's Bazar subdivision where Shuja had said his Eidul Fitr prayers in 1660 during his ill-fated journey is known as Idgaown. The high road from Daudkandi in Tipperah district to Arakan through Chittagong is still known as Shah Shuja's Road. Presumably, it was built during Shah Shuja's viceroyalty in Bengal. There are a number of mosques on the side of the road from Daudkandi to Comilla which are said to have been built by the camp followers of Shah Shuja. Shah Shuja requested the king of Arakan to give him shelter and provide ships so that he could go to Mecca.

Sandathudamma (1652-84): The king Sandathudamma (1652-84) consented and Shuja with his family and followers were brought to Mrouhaung, the capital city of Arakan, in Portuguese gelasses from Teknaf. He arrived at Mrohaung on 26th August, 1660 and was favourably received by the king who assigned him a residence near the city. Shuja kept aloof from the king repelled by his table manners. The Arakanese had never seen the like of his treasure, six or eight camel loads of gold and jewels; moreover the Mughals offered large sums for his extradition. Eight months went by, yet the king never provided the ships he had promised. Finally he asked for Shuja's eldest daughter, and .Shuja, a blue-blooded Mughal of the Imperial house, felt that his cup of bitterness was full. He was helpless and could not get away. Shah Shuja, realising his peril, made a desperate attempt to escape from the country. But his plans miscarried, and when the populace got upon his followers the latter ran amok and set fire to a large part of the city before they were rounded up and massacred. It was given out that Shah .Shuja had attempted to seize the place. The king, it was said, had been dissuaded by his mother from having him killed. She argued that killing princes was a dangerous sport for which his own subjects might acquire a taste. But on 7-2-1661 Shah Shuja's residence was attacked and there was another massacre. Shah Shuja was never seen again. It was rumoured that he had fled to the .hills with his sons but had been caught and put to death. The chief of the Dutch factory at Mrohang reported (the prince Shah Shuja is believed, though with no certainty, to .have perished in the first fury, but his body was made unrecognisable by the grandees in order the better to be able to deck their persons with the costly jewels he wore. His three sons, together with his wives and daughters, have been taken ; the wives and daughters have been brought to the King's palace and the sons after being imprisoned for some time, have been released and permitted to live in a little house. Every day the .gold and silver which the Arakanese have taken, are brought into the King's treasury to be melted down.')

As soon as Mir Jumla heard through the Dutch factory at Dacca of Shah Shuja's murder he commanded a Dutch ship to carry an envoy to Mrohaung with a peremptory demand for the surrender of Shah Shuja's children. It was refused and the king protested to Batavia against the use of Dutch ship by a Mughal envoy. In July 1663 a desperate attempt to rescue the three captive princes failed. Thereupon the king burnt his boats 'by having them beheaded and slaughtering a large number of Bengalees and Moslems at the capital. A mournful ballad about the tragic life of the daughter of Shuja is current in Chitta-gong and Arakan and has been collected in East Bengal Ballads published by the Calcutta University.

The expulsion of the Mogh/Mugh (Marma) from Chittagong:

The expulsion of the Mogh/Mugh from Bangladesh and the conquest of Chittagong was a particularly memorable and meritorious deed of Shaista Khan's subadari. Chittagong was ruled by the Arakanese king. In 1617, the Arakanese king seized the Sandhip from the Portuguese. As a result, it was very convenient for the Mugh/Mogh pirates to plunder the Meghna region up to Dhaka. Mogh/Mugh and Firingi pirates used to come together and cause havoc in this area. The Portuguese and Firingi pirates were called Harmads. These pirates captured men and women and sold them as slaves to European merchants. European merchants sent them to different countries as commodities. The Maghs/Mughs took many to Arakan and employed men as laborers and kept girls as slaves.

Subedar Shaista Khan felt the urgent need to take measures to protect the lives and property of the people from the intrusion of the Mogh and Firingi pirates. To repel them, he built many warships and collected warships from different places. In this way he equipped 300 warships and prepared for the campaign against the pirates. His mission was to conquer Sandhip and Chittagong. Shortly before the expedition, a fugitive naval chief of the Mughal navy named Dilayar snatched Sandhip from the Arakanese and established his dominance there. Ibn Husain, the Mughal naval commander, attacked Sandhip with his navy and defeated and captured Dilayar and captured Sandhip (November 1665 AD). At this time a dispute arose between the Mogh rulers of Chittagong and the Portuguese and the Mughal officials of Noakhali took advantage of this. The Firingis of Chittagong took refuge in Noakhali in 42 fishing boats with their families and treasures.

Subedar Shaista Khan sent an expedition from Dhaka to conquer Chittagong on 24 December 1665 AD. Buzurg Umed Khan, the eldest son of Subadar, was appointed chief of the expedition. Ibn Husayn, the commander of the navy, set sail for the river with 288 warships. The Firingis joined him with 40 warships. Buzurg Umed's army advanced from Noakhali and Ibn Husain's navy marched towards Chittagong from the coast of Bahia. On 14 January the Mughal troops crossed the Feni River and entered the Chittagong area. When the Mughal fleet left Comilla and approached the Kathalia canal, it was stopped by the Mogh navy. On 23th and 24th January 1666 AD, a naval battle was fought between the two sides near Kathalia canal. The Mogh naval fleet suffered heavy losses in this battle and it fell into the Karnafuli River. The Mogh navy was ready to resist the Mughals on the Karnafuli River. Ibn Husayn's navy entered the Karnafuli River and attacked the Maghs. Several ships of the Arakanese sank in the Mughal shelling. They were completely defeated and 135 of their warships were captured by the Mughals. The victorious Mughal naval commander besieged the port of Chittagong by river. At this time the army of Buzurg Umed was near Chittagong. One day after the battle, the Mogh army became helpless and surrendered to Ibn Husain.

On 26 January 1666 AD, the victorious Mughal general Buzurg Umed entered the Chittagong fort. 2000 Moghs were captured by the Mughals. The Mogh pirates captured thousands of Bengali peasants and enslaved them, but they were released after the Mughal conquest of Chittagong. Chittagong became part of the Mughal Empire and its rule was vested in a faujdar. By the order of the emperor, the name of Chittagong was changed to Islamabad.

After the occupation of the Chittagong region of the Arakan state by the ruler of Bengal, most of the Arakanese Maghs/Marmas settled in the Chittagong Hill Tracts along with the Magh / Marma and other ethnic groups. As Greater Chittagong was formerly part of the Arakan Empire, the Arakanese Maghs settled in Bandarban, Rangamati and various parts of Khagrachhari district and Rangunia, Satkania and Eidgaon in Chittagong district and the Rakhine settled in Cox's Bazar, Maheshkhali, Ukhia and Teknaf. Mugs / Marmas stay permanently in these places. The Mughs/Marmas lived in the river valleys like Sangu River, Karnafuli River, Matamuhri River and Zum farmers lived in the hills.

In 1760 AD, Chittagong district was transferred to East India Company. In 1781 AD, The Chittagong Hill Tracts were blocked or economically isolated. Thus the war lasted for about 10 years. Finally tired, the government of the company made a treaty with the Chakma king in 16 AD. In that treaty the internal independence of the king of the Chittagong Hill Tracts was recognized.

The year 1937-48 is very important in the history of political evolution of the Indian subcontinent. Towards the end of this period, the British government decided to hand over power, which resulted in the creation of two independent and sovereign states, India and Pakistan. Pakistan became independence on 14 August 1947. The state of Pakistan was born on 14 August 1947 on the basis of biracialism. Bangladesh became independence on 16 December 1971.

Pegu from where the Marma of Bomaong Circle arrived (Bohmaong Hthong):

Pegu, Burmese Bago (Bago formerly spelt Pegu) formerly known as Hanthawaddy is a city and the capital of the Bago Region in Myanmar. The pegu city, on the Pegu River, 47 miles (76 km) northeast of Yangon (Rangoon). Pegu was the capital of the Mon kingdom and is surrounded by the ruins of its old wall and moat, which formed a square, with 1.5-mile (2.4-kilometre) sides. On the Yangon–Mandalay railway, it is the start of a branch line southeast along the Gulf of Martaban, an inlet of the Bay of Bengal, and has extensive road links in all directions.

In 1369, King Binnya U made Bago the capital. The city remained the capital until the kingdom's fall in 1538. During the reign of King Razadarit, Bago and Ava Kingdom were engaged in the Forty Years' War. The peaceful reign of Queen Shin Sawbu came to an end when she chose the Buddhist monk Dhammazedi (1471–1492) to succeed her. Under Dhammazedi, Bago became a centre of commerce and Theravada Buddhism.

In 1519, António Correia, then a merchant from the Portuguese casados settlement at Cochin landed in Bago, then known to the Portuguese as Pegu, looking for new markets for pepper from Cochin. A year later, Portuguese India Governor Diogo Lopes de Sequeira sent an ambassador to Pegu. The Portuguese conquest of Pegu, following the destruction caused by the kings of Tangot and Arrakan in 1599.

The capital was looted by the viceroy of Toungoo, Minye Thihathu II of Toungoo, and then burned by the viceroy of Arakin during the Burmese–Siamese War (1594–1605). Anaukpetlun wanted to rebuild Hangsawadi, which had been deserted since Nanda Bayin had abandoned it. He was only able to build a temporary palace, however. The Burmese capital relocated to Ava in 1634. In 1740, the Mon revolted and founded the Restored Hansawaddy Kingdom. However, a Bamar king, Alaungpaya, captured the city in May 1757. Bago was rebuilt by King Bodawpaya (r. 1782-1819), but by then the river had shifted course, cutting the city off from the sea. It never regained its previous importance. After the Second Anglo-Burmese War, the British annexed Bago in 1852. In 1862, the province of British Burma was formed, and the capital moved to Yangon. The substantial differences between the colloquial and literary pronunciations, as with Burmese words, was a reason of the British corruption "Pegu".

The Mrauk-U Where from the Marma of Mong Circle (Palai Mang Hthong):

The Kingdom of Mrauk-U was an independent coastal kingdom of Arakan which existed for over 350 years. It was based in the city of Mrauk-U, near the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. The kingdom from 1429 to 1785 ruled over what is now Rakhine State, Myanmar and Chittagong Division, Bangladesh. From 1429 to 1531 it was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods. After gaining independence from Bengal, it prospered with help from the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong. In 1666, it lost control of Chittagong after a war with the Mughal Empire. Its reign continued until the 18th century, when it fell to the invasion of the Burmese Empire.

It was home to a multiethnic population with the city of Mrauk U being home to mosques, temples, shrines, seminaries and libraries. The kingdom was also a center of piracy and the slave trade. It was frequented by Arab, Danish, Dutch and Portuguese traders.

 About Arakane from where the Marma arrived:

Arakan, coastal geographic region in southern Myanmar (Burma). It comprises a long, narrow strip of land along the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal and stretches from the Nāf estuary on the border of the Chittagong Hills area (in Bangladesh) in the north to the Gwa River in the south. The Arakan region is about 400 miles (640 km) long from north to south and is about 90 miles (145 km) wide at its broadest. The Arakan Yoma, a range that forms the eastern boundary of the region, to some extent isolates it from the rest of southern Myanmar. The coast has several sizable offshore islands, including Cheduba and Ramree. The region’s principal rivers are the Nāf estuary and the Mayu, Kaladan, and Lemro rivers.

Only one-tenth of Arakan’s generally hilly land is cultivated. Rice is the dominant crop in the delta areas, where most of the population is concentrated. Other crops include fruits, chilies, dhani (thatch), and tobacco. The natural hillside vegetation of evergreen forest has been destroyed over wide areas by shifting cultivation (slashing and burning to clear land for cultivation) and has been replaced by a useless tangle of bamboo.

The main towns are coastal and include Sittwe (Akyab), Sandoway, Kyaukpyu, and Taungup. Long accessible only by sea, the Arakan region is now linked by air and road with the rest of the country. An all-weather road running through a pass in the Arakan Yoma connects Taungup with Pyè on the Irrawaddy River.

Arakanese, also called Rakhine, ethnic group centred in the Arakan coastal region of Myanmar (Burma), in the state of Rakhine. Most Arakanese speak an unusual variety of the Burmese language that includes significant differences from Burmese pronunciation and vocabulary.

An independent Arakanese kingdom was probably established as early as the 4th century CE and was led at various times by Muslim as well as Buddhist rulers. Modern Arakanese continue to follow distinctive traditions and to celebrate this part of their history. The huge Mahamuni statue (now in Mandalay) is considered by Buddhist Arakanese to be their national image and is alleged to predate the Burmese kingdom centred at Pagan (1044–1287 CE) by a millennium.

Eventually the Mongols, and later the Portuguese, invaded Arakan. In 1785 Burmese forces conquered the Arakanese kingdom and carried the Mahamuni statue off to Mandalay. The Arakan region was ceded to the British in 1826 through the Treaty of Yandabo. When Myanmar became independent from British rule in 1948, the province in which the Arakanese are dominant was named Arakan. This name was changed to Rakhine in the 1990s.